Australia was the world's last major honey-producing country to detect varroa mite — but that changed in 2022. Combined with the diseases and pests that have been here for decades, today's Australian beekeepers need to know more about hive health than any generation before them.
This guide covers the diseases and pests every Aussie beekeeper should know how to identify, manage and prevent — from the headline new threat (varroa) to long-standing biosecurity priorities (AFB, EFB) and everything in between. Where treatment options exist, we'll cover them. Where the right move is calling your state ag department, we'll flag that too.
If you're new to beekeeping, start with our guide to How to Start Beekeeping in Australia first. Disease awareness builds on the inspection habits you'll develop from your first year onwards.
How to spot a sick hive
A healthy brood frame: solid, even capping pattern across the comb with workers covering the cells. This is the baseline — anything that deviates noticeably from this look is worth investigating.
The single most important tool for catching disease early is the regular hive inspection. The healthy reference image above shows what you're looking for: tight, even capped brood pattern, lots of workers covering the comb, no foul smells, no unusual debris.
Anything that looks significantly different from that baseline is worth investigating.
Quick checklist — early warning signs
- Brood pattern looks "shotgun" — scattered capped cells with empty cells between them
- Capping abnormalities — sunken, perforated, discoloured (brown, grey, black)
- Unusual smell from the hive — sour, putrid, or yeasty
- Reduced foraging activity at the entrance during normal flying weather
- Dwindling adult population without a corresponding swarm
- Dead or deformed bees at the hive entrance
- Crawling bees unable to fly (often varroa-vectored DWV)
- Dysentery or yellow faecal staining on the hive exterior, landing board or surrounding equipment (often Nosema)
- White, grey or mummified larvae spilling from cells onto the bottom board
- Spider-web-like material on frames (wax moth)
- Beetles, mites or larvae visible on inspection
When you see any of these, dig deeper. The sections below help you match symptoms to specific diseases or pests.
Notifiable diseases: AFB and EFB
Some diseases are so serious that you are legally required to report them to your state department of agriculture. The two big ones in Australia: American Foulbrood (AFB) and European Foulbrood (EFB).
American Foulbrood (AFB)
AFB is the most destructive brood disease of honey bees worldwide. It's caused by the bacterium Paenibacillus larvae and infects bee larvae. Once present, the spores can survive for decades, making AFB a long-term biosecurity problem for any infected equipment.
AFB rope test in progress. Note the unhealthy "shotgun" brood pattern and sunken cells across the comb — classic visual warning signs of AFB, often visible before you reach for the matchstick.
Symptoms to look for:
- Patchy (shotgun) brood pattern
- Sunken, perforated or greasy-looking cappings on what should be sealed brood
- Brown, gluey, foul-smelling larvae remains in cells
- The rope test (pictured above): insert a matchstick or twig into an infected cell and slowly withdraw it — if a brown, ropey, stringy substance pulls out 1cm or more, it's AFB until proven otherwise
- Hard, dark "scale" stuck to the lower wall of cells (the dried remains of dead larvae)
Treatment options:
In Australia, AFB-infected hives cannot be treated with antibiotics. The required response is to destroy infected combs and bees by burning, and to either destroy or sterilise the boxes, frames and bases. Hot wax dipping at 150–180°C is one accepted sterilisation method — submerged for 10+ minutes, the heat kills spores or encapsulates them in wax. See our bulk paraffin wax blocks for wax dipping setups.
You must notify your state biosecurity authority. AFB is a nationally notifiable disease and reporting is required by law.
European Foulbrood (EFB)
EFB is a bacterial brood disease caused by Melissococcus plutonius. Less destructive than AFB, but still serious — and notifiable in some states.
Symptoms:
- Patchy brood with discoloured (yellow → brown → grey) larvae
- Larvae twisted in unusual positions inside the cell (rather than the usual C-shape)
- Sour, unpleasant smell from the hive
- Larvae usually die before capping (vs AFB, which usually kills after capping)
- No rope test response (the dead larvae are less viscous)
EFB can sometimes be managed without destroying the hive — requeening, comb replacement and shaking bees onto fresh foundation can recover the colony. But treatment options vary by state, and you must check your local biosecurity requirements.
Varroa destructor
Varroa is the biggest change to Australian beekeeping in decades. Detected at Newcastle, NSW in mid-2022, eradication was abandoned in 2023 and the response shifted to management. Beekeepers across the country now need to monitor and treat for varroa as a routine part of hive management.
What is varroa?
Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that feeds on adult bees and developing brood. The mites carry and spread bee viruses (including Deformed Wing Virus / DWV), and untreated colonies typically collapse within 1–3 years of infestation. Reddish-brown, about the size of a pinhead, mites are visible to the naked eye on adult bees and pupae.
Monitoring methods
You can't manage what you can't measure. There are three core monitoring methods:
1. Sticky board (natural drop count) — A sticky mat or counting grid sits in the drawer of your screened bottom board. Mites groom off bees and fall through the mesh onto the sticky surface. Insert the mat for 24 or 72 hours, then count the mites. This is the easiest passive monitoring method.
- Varroa Sticky Mat / Counting Grid (10-pack) — works with our mesh bases
- Pair with our 8 frame or 10 frame mesh / screened bottom board
2. Sugar shake — Shake ~300 bees into a jar with icing sugar, roll for 60 seconds, then shake out onto white paper. Mites detach and are visible in the sugar. Non-lethal to the bees.
3. Alcohol wash / CO2 test — More accurate than sugar shake. Bees are immobilised (CO2 is non-lethal, alcohol is lethal) and washed with alcohol or water to detach the mites. Use the same test kit as above, or our CO2 Varroa Test Kit for the most accurate count without killing bees.
Treatment options (broad overview)
In Australia, registered varroa treatments include synthetic miticides (Apivar, Bayvarol), organic acids (oxalic, formic) and essential oil products. Treatment timing, withholding periods and rotation matter — and the right protocol depends on your state's biosecurity guidance and the time of year.
Beyond chemical treatments, you can also use:
- Mesh / screened bottom boards — let mites fall out of the hive rather than back onto bees
- Drone foundation — drone brood is varroa's preferred reproduction host. Letting drone comb build up, then removing it before emergence, traps and removes mites.
- Queen isolation cage — forcing a brood break starves varroa of reproduction targets, complementing chemical treatments.
Don't rely on a single method. Modern varroa management uses integrated pest management (IPM) — combining monitoring, mechanical (mesh bases, drone trapping) and chemical interventions.
Small Hive Beetle (SHB)
Aethina tumida is endemic in most of mainland Australia. Adults are small black/brown beetles about 5mm long; larvae are the destructive stage. Untreated infestations turn frames into a sludgy, fermented mess ("slimed out") in a matter of days.
Watch them in action
Symptoms:
- Adult beetles scuttling on the inner cover, top bars or hive walls
- Larvae (small, cream-coloured grubs with three pairs of front legs) tunneling through honey and pollen stores
- Fermented, "slimed" honey with a fruity-yeasty smell
- Brown weeping liquid running from the hive entrance
Differentiating SHB larvae from wax moth larvae:
- SHB larvae are smaller (max ~10mm), cream-coloured, with three pairs of legs near the head only (vs wax moth larvae having legs all along the body)
- SHB larvae are usually around honey/pollen stores; wax moth larvae attack comb
- No webbing with SHB (wax moth produces extensive webbing — see below)
Management
The drawer in your mesh / screened bottom board is your most powerful SHB tool. Slide in oil, diatomaceous earth or Chux cloth — beetles knocked off frames fall through the mesh into the drawer and are trapped or killed. (Check regulations in your state.)
You can also use dedicated beetle traps that sit inside the hive. We stock five different styles:
- Reusable Plastic Small Hive Beetle Traps (5 Pack) — sit between the frame top bars. Open the trap, fill with cooking oil or diatomaceous earth, snap closed and place in the hive. Empty and refill when full — reusable for many seasons.
- Disposable Small Hive Beetle Traps (5 Pack) — same between-frame design but a single-use, lower-cost option. Fill with oil or DE, replace once it's full. Cheaper per unit but generates more waste over time.
- Aluminium Small Hive Beetle Trap — metal version of the between-frame trap. Built to last, won't crack or warp under hive temperatures, and very low-profile between top bars.
- Beetle Jail (Clip Style) Reusable Traps (5 Pack) — this version has 3 compartments and can be baited to attract small hive beetles. The middle compartment is usually baited with apple cider vinegar, and the outer compartments are filled with oil or diatomaceous earth.
- Beetle Barn Style Reusable Traps (5 Pack) — beekeepers commonly load Beetle Barn style traps with commercial cockroach gels. These traps are small enough to allow beetles to enter while keeping honey bees safe, and are usually loaded with a targeted insecticide like Cockroach Killer Gel.
- Bottom board drawer trap — your mesh / screened bottom board drawer doubles as a passive beetle trap when you add oil, DE or Chux cloth. Best for ongoing low-level management without having to open the hive.
Other management tactics:
- Strong colonies defend better than weak ones — combine weak colonies, requeen if necessary
- Don't leave honey supers on after extraction; SHB lay eggs in cappings and unprotected supers
Other pests and diseases
Wax Moth
Greater and lesser wax moths (Galleria mellonella and Achroia grisella) destroy stored frames and weakened hives. The larvae tunnel through comb leaving a characteristic webbing. Strong colonies usually keep wax moth in check; the problem mainly appears in stored frames and stressed hives.
We've got a full guide on this one: What is wax moth and how to protect against them.
Chalkbrood
A fungal disease caused by Ascosphaera apis. Infected larvae die and turn into hard, chalky mummies that look like white or grey lumps in cells or on the bottom board (often visible on the ground in front of the hive in early spring).
Not usually fatal. Often resolves with:
- Strong colony numbers (requeen if necessary)
- Improved hive ventilation (mesh bases help)
- Removal of severely affected comb
- Warm dry conditions
Nosema
A microsporidian gut parasite (now classified as fungi). Two species: Nosema apis (cool climate, classic dysentery symptoms) and Nosema ceranae (warmer climate, often asymptomatic until colony decline).
Symptoms:
- Yellow-brown faecal staining on hive exterior
- Crawling bees, distended abdomens, K-wings
- Slow build-up in spring, declining adult numbers
Management: requeening, fresh comb, reducing stress. No chemical treatments available in Australia for hobby beekeepers.
Sacbrood
A viral disease affecting larvae. Infected larvae die before pupation, head dark, body fluid-filled — "sacbrood" because the larva pulls out of the cell in one piece like a small water-filled sac.
Usually self-limiting and managed by requeening with hygienic stock. Often appears in stressed colonies.
Deformed Wing Virus (DWV)
A virus normally present at low levels in healthy colonies — but amplified massively by varroa. The mites act as a vector, transmitting and concentrating the virus. Infected adult bees emerge with shrivelled, deformed wings and short lifespans.
If you see deformed-wing bees, you almost certainly have a varroa problem. Treat the mites and DWV typically resolves.
Prevention and hive health basics
Good husbandry prevents most disease problems before they start:
- Regular inspections — every 2–4 weeks during the active season
- Strong colonies — combine weak hives, requeen with quality stock annually
- Ventilation — mesh bottom boards instead of solid, prop the outer cover during heat
- Clean equipment — never swap brood frames between hives without inspection; sterilise tools between yards
- Wax dipping — many commercial beekeepers wax-dip their woodware regularly using bulk paraffin wax, both for longevity and for AFB sterilisation
- Quality wax foundation — replace dark old comb every 3–5 years; chemical residue accumulates in old wax
- Reduce stress — minimise moves, never run colonies through unsuitable seasons hungry, requeen aggressively when problems appear
What to do when you find disease
- Don't panic, don't ignore. Most diseases are manageable when caught early.
- Confirm identification. A photo is your friend — compare to references, consult your local beekeeping association.
- Isolate the suspect hive from healthy ones. Stop moving frames between colonies.
- Notify if required. AFB is always notifiable. EFB and varroa requirements vary by state and are evolving over time — at the time of writing (mid-2026), some states still require reporting of varroa detections, while others have shifted from eradication to endemic management. Always check your state's current biosecurity guidance before assuming.
- Implement treatment or destruction. Follow your state's protocol. With AFB, that means destruction. With varroa, that means a registered treatment.
- Sterilise equipment before reusing — wax dipping for woodware, replace soft components.
- Re-inspect frequently for the next 8–12 weeks to confirm the problem is resolved.
Australian biosecurity — what you need to know
Beekeeping in Australia is regulated by state and territory governments, with the Department of Agriculture coordinating at the federal level. Rules vary, but in every state:
- You must register as a beekeeper to keep hives (registration is free or nominal in most states)
- AFB is always notifiable — must be reported to state ag department immediately
- EFB is notifiable in most states
- Varroa — notifiable status varies by state and is evolving as varroa establishes. At the time of writing (mid-2026), some states still classify varroa detections as notifiable; others have shifted from eradication to endemic management, which typically removes the reporting requirement. Don't assume — check your state's current biosecurity authority before you find a problem.
Where to look for your state's specific rules:
- NSW: DPI biosecurity beekeeping page
- VIC: Agriculture Victoria honey bees
- QLD: Business Queensland honey bee biosecurity
- SA: PIRSA apiary
- WA: DPIRD biosecurity bees
- TAS: NRE Tasmania biosecurity
- NT and ACT: contact regional ag department
This is general information — always defer to your state's current biosecurity guidance.
Tools for monitoring and treatment
Equipping your hive properly makes disease management dramatically easier:
- Mesh / screened bottom boards — passive varroa monitoring + SHB control + ventilation: 8 Frame Mesh Base · 10 Frame Mesh Base
- Varroa monitoring: Sticky Mat / Counting Grid · Sugar Shake / Alcohol Wash Kit · CO2 Test Kit
- Drone trapping for varroa: Drone Plastic Foundation (full depth, pink)
- Brood break for varroa: Queen Bee Isolation / Containment Cage
- SHB trapping: Reusable Plastic · Disposable · Aluminium · Beetle Jail (Clip) · Beetle Barn (Baited)
- AFB sterilisation: Bulk Paraffin Wax for wax dipping
- Starting from scratch: Beekeeping Starter Tool Kit — smoker, hive tool, brush
Frequently asked questions
What's the difference between AFB and EFB?
Both are bacterial brood diseases. AFB (Paenibacillus larvae) usually kills larvae AFTER capping and the dried remains form a hard scale. EFB (Melissococcus plutonius) usually kills larvae BEFORE capping and the remains are softer with no scale. The AFB rope test is positive; EFB rope test is negative. AFB requires destruction; EFB can sometimes be managed.
Is varroa still a notifiable disease?
It depends on your state, and the rules are changing. When varroa was first detected in 2022 it was notifiable everywhere as part of the national eradication response. Once eradication was abandoned in 2023 and the response shifted to endemic management, some states began relaxing the reporting requirement. As of writing (mid-2026), notifiable status varies by state — always check your state's current biosecurity guidance, because what was true a year ago may not be true now.
How often should I inspect for disease?
Every 2–4 weeks during the active season (Sept–April in most of Australia). Less frequently in winter when the cluster is tight. Always pull frames and check brood patterns — don't just look at the outside.
Can I treat AFB?
No. In Australia, AFB-infected hives must be destroyed (burned) and equipment either destroyed or sterilised (heat or wax dipping). Antibiotic treatment is illegal and only masks the disease without eliminating spores.
What's the rope test for AFB?
Insert a matchstick, twig or grass stem into a suspect cell, swirl gently to mix with the larva remains, and slowly withdraw. If a brown, ropey, stringy substance pulls out 1cm or more, it's AFB until proven otherwise. Bag the frame, isolate the hive, contact your state biosecurity authority.
Can plastic frames help with disease management?
Yes, indirectly. Plastic frames (especially black plastic) make it easier to spot eggs, larvae and disease symptoms against the dark background. They also don't get destroyed by wax moth in the same way timber frames can.
How does a mesh bottom board help with disease?
Two ways. First, varroa monitoring — mites groom off bees and fall through the mesh onto the drawer where you can count them. Second, SHB control — beetles knocked off frames fall through into the drawer, where oil, DE or Chux cloth trap them. The ventilation also helps with chalkbrood and general hive health.
Should I burn my hives if I find AFB?
Before destroying anything, confirm AFB properly first. The rope test is a strong field indicator but it's not definitive. Confirmation should come from either a rapid AFB field test kit or, more reliably, laboratory analysis of a honey sample or a hive swabbing sent to an accredited lab (your state biosecurity authority can advise on submission). Once AFB is confirmed: the infected combs and bees must be destroyed by burning. The boxes, frames and bases can be sterilised by hot wax dipping at 150–180°C for 10+ minutes — but only if you can guarantee proper temperature and submersion time. When in doubt, destroy. Spores survive for decades.
In summary
Disease management is now part of every Australian beekeeper's job description, not just commercial operators. The core practices — regular inspections, strong colonies, good husbandry and proactive monitoring for varroa — protect your hives whether you've got one in the backyard or 100 in the field.
If you keep one principle in mind: monitor before you have a problem, not after. The cost of a sticky mat is a fraction of a lost colony.
For more on getting started: How to Start Beekeeping in Australia. For the gear: The Bee Store's full range. Stay vigilant, stay registered, and check current biosecurity guidance before you find a problem.